Jefferson's Foreign Policy
When Jefferson took office in 1801, he wanted to focus on domestic issues. In his inaugural address, he noted that America was "kindly spirited by nature and a wide ocean from the exterminating havoc (war) of one quarter of the globe." He advised the United States to seek the friendship of all nations, but to enter into "entangling alliances with none."
However, the president's desire to keep the United States separated from other nations and their problems was doomed to fail. For starters, American merchants were engaged in trade all over the world. Secondly, the Louisiana Purchase and the expeditions of Lewis and Clark and Zebulon Pike were opening the country to westward expansion. This expansion would bring Americans into closer contact with people from other nations who had already established settlements in the West.
Finally, the United States had little or no control over the actions of other nations. Therefore, remaining neutral in instances such as the ongoing war between France and Britain would remain very difficult.
However, the president's desire to keep the United States separated from other nations and their problems was doomed to fail. For starters, American merchants were engaged in trade all over the world. Secondly, the Louisiana Purchase and the expeditions of Lewis and Clark and Zebulon Pike were opening the country to westward expansion. This expansion would bring Americans into closer contact with people from other nations who had already established settlements in the West.
Finally, the United States had little or no control over the actions of other nations. Therefore, remaining neutral in instances such as the ongoing war between France and Britain would remain very difficult.
Problems with France and England (Britain)
Many Americans were impressed (kidnapped) prior to the War of 1812
For a long time, the United States managed not to get involved in the European wars that followed the French Revolution. At times, the nation even benefited from these conflicts. Busy with affairs in Europe, France sold the Louisiana Territory to the United States. And American shippers eagerly took over trade interrupted by war.
In 1805 however, the British began to clamp down on U.S. shipping. They did not want Americans to provide their enemies with food and supplies. After the United States threatened to take action, the British decided to set up a partial naval blockade. This would allow on some American ships to bring goods into Europe.
The partial blockade angered France, which enacted its own laws to control foreign shipping. These changes put American merchants in a difficult position. If they obeyed British rules, their ships could be seized by the French. If they obeyed French rules, their ships could be seized by the British.
Britain also interfered with U.S. trade through the practice of impressment (kidnapping American sailors and forcing them to work on British ships). Between 1803 and 1812, over 6000 American sailors were impressed. One of the most famous incidents was the 1807 attack of the American naval ship, the Chesapeake, by the British ship, the Leopard off the coast of Virginia. Three Americans lost their lives in this battle. The attack aroused widespread anger. Had Congress been in session, America may have declared war. But Jefferson, who had been re-elected in 1804, decided against it. One critic, furious at Jefferson, called him a "dish of skim milk curdling (spoiling) at the head of our nation."
Instead of declaring war, Jefferson asked Congress to pass legislation that would halt all foreign trade. "Peaceable coercion," as the president described the policy, would, he thought, prevent further bloodshed.
In December 1807, Congress passed the Embargo Act of 1807. Now American ships were no longer allowed to sail to foreign ports. The act also closed all American ports to British ships.
Jefferson's policy was a disaster. It was much more harmful to the U.S. than to France or Britain. American farmers and merchants were hit especially hard. Southern and Western farmers, for example, lost important markets to sell their grain, cotton and tobacco. Shippers lost income and many simply chose to violate the embargo by making false claims about where they were going. One New Englander said the embargo was like "cutting one's throat to stop a nosebleed."
The embargo would become a major issue in the election of 1808. Jefferson's old friend James Madison won the election. However, by the time he took office, Congress had already repealed the embargo.
Madison's solution to the problem was a law that allowed merchants to trade with any country except France or Britain. Trade with these countries would only start again when they agreed to respect U.S. shipping rights. Sadly, this law proved no more effective than the embargo.
In 1805 however, the British began to clamp down on U.S. shipping. They did not want Americans to provide their enemies with food and supplies. After the United States threatened to take action, the British decided to set up a partial naval blockade. This would allow on some American ships to bring goods into Europe.
The partial blockade angered France, which enacted its own laws to control foreign shipping. These changes put American merchants in a difficult position. If they obeyed British rules, their ships could be seized by the French. If they obeyed French rules, their ships could be seized by the British.
Britain also interfered with U.S. trade through the practice of impressment (kidnapping American sailors and forcing them to work on British ships). Between 1803 and 1812, over 6000 American sailors were impressed. One of the most famous incidents was the 1807 attack of the American naval ship, the Chesapeake, by the British ship, the Leopard off the coast of Virginia. Three Americans lost their lives in this battle. The attack aroused widespread anger. Had Congress been in session, America may have declared war. But Jefferson, who had been re-elected in 1804, decided against it. One critic, furious at Jefferson, called him a "dish of skim milk curdling (spoiling) at the head of our nation."
Instead of declaring war, Jefferson asked Congress to pass legislation that would halt all foreign trade. "Peaceable coercion," as the president described the policy, would, he thought, prevent further bloodshed.
In December 1807, Congress passed the Embargo Act of 1807. Now American ships were no longer allowed to sail to foreign ports. The act also closed all American ports to British ships.
Jefferson's policy was a disaster. It was much more harmful to the U.S. than to France or Britain. American farmers and merchants were hit especially hard. Southern and Western farmers, for example, lost important markets to sell their grain, cotton and tobacco. Shippers lost income and many simply chose to violate the embargo by making false claims about where they were going. One New Englander said the embargo was like "cutting one's throat to stop a nosebleed."
The embargo would become a major issue in the election of 1808. Jefferson's old friend James Madison won the election. However, by the time he took office, Congress had already repealed the embargo.
Madison's solution to the problem was a law that allowed merchants to trade with any country except France or Britain. Trade with these countries would only start again when they agreed to respect U.S. shipping rights. Sadly, this law proved no more effective than the embargo.
Tecumseh and Native American Unity
Tecumseh
British interference with American shipping and the impressment of American sailors infuriated many. They were also growing angry over Britain's actions in the American Northwest. Many settlers here believed that the British were intentionally stirring up problems between them and the Native American tribes of the region.
Since the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794. Native Americans continued to lose their lands. Thousands of white settlers swarmed into Ohio and then into Indiana.
Tecumseh, a Shawnee chief, vowed to stop the loss of Native American land. He believed that the reason Native Americans continued to lose their land was because they were separated into many tribes. He concluded that Native American tribes needed to unite. Events in 1809 would prove him correct.
That September, William Henry Harrison, governor of the Indiana Territory, signed the Treaty of Fort Wayne with the chiefs of the Miami, Delaware and Potawatomi tribes. They agreed to sell over three million acres of land. Tecumseh, however, disregarded the treaty as meaningless.
"Whites have taken upon themselves to say this land belongs to the Miamis, this belongs to the Delawares and so on. The Great Spirit intended our land to be the common property of all the tribes, and it cannot be sold without the consent of all," said Tecumseh at hearing the news of the Treaty of Fort Wayne.
After the treaty was signed, many Native Americans began to answer Tecumseh's call for unity. But his efforts would ultimately fail. In November of 1811, while Tecumseh was away recruiting tribes for his alliance, the Shawnee were defeated by a force led by William Henry Harrison at the Battle of Tippecanoe. It was a severe setback to Tecumseh's unification movement.
Since the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794. Native Americans continued to lose their lands. Thousands of white settlers swarmed into Ohio and then into Indiana.
Tecumseh, a Shawnee chief, vowed to stop the loss of Native American land. He believed that the reason Native Americans continued to lose their land was because they were separated into many tribes. He concluded that Native American tribes needed to unite. Events in 1809 would prove him correct.
That September, William Henry Harrison, governor of the Indiana Territory, signed the Treaty of Fort Wayne with the chiefs of the Miami, Delaware and Potawatomi tribes. They agreed to sell over three million acres of land. Tecumseh, however, disregarded the treaty as meaningless.
"Whites have taken upon themselves to say this land belongs to the Miamis, this belongs to the Delawares and so on. The Great Spirit intended our land to be the common property of all the tribes, and it cannot be sold without the consent of all," said Tecumseh at hearing the news of the Treaty of Fort Wayne.
After the treaty was signed, many Native Americans began to answer Tecumseh's call for unity. But his efforts would ultimately fail. In November of 1811, while Tecumseh was away recruiting tribes for his alliance, the Shawnee were defeated by a force led by William Henry Harrison at the Battle of Tippecanoe. It was a severe setback to Tecumseh's unification movement.
The War Hawks
Andrew Jackson
After the Battle of Tippecanoe, Tecumseh and his warriors found a warm welcome with the British in Canada. At that point, the Native Americans and the British became close allies. Tecumseh's welcome in Canada raised even more the anti-British feelings in the West.
Leaders such as Congressman Henry Clay of Kentucky angrily demanded war with Britain. Westerners who called for war were called War Hawks. They wanted British aid to the Native Americans stopped, and they wanted the British out of Canada. Conquering Canada would open a vast new empire for Americans.
Other Americans sought war because of the British violations of American rights at sea. Future president Andrew Jackson said hostilities were necessary, "for the protection of our maritime citizens impressed on board British ships of war," and to "open a market for the productions of our soil."
Urged on by Jackson and the War Hawks, Congress declared war on Britain on June 12, 1812.
Leaders such as Congressman Henry Clay of Kentucky angrily demanded war with Britain. Westerners who called for war were called War Hawks. They wanted British aid to the Native Americans stopped, and they wanted the British out of Canada. Conquering Canada would open a vast new empire for Americans.
Other Americans sought war because of the British violations of American rights at sea. Future president Andrew Jackson said hostilities were necessary, "for the protection of our maritime citizens impressed on board British ships of war," and to "open a market for the productions of our soil."
Urged on by Jackson and the War Hawks, Congress declared war on Britain on June 12, 1812.
A Summary of the Causes of the War of 1812
1. Impressment of U.S. citizens
2. Interference with American shipping
3. British alliances with Native Americans led by Tecumseh
The War Begins
Propaganda from the War of 1812
Britain did not want a war with the U.S. since it was already at war with France. To try to avoid war, Britain announced that it would no longer interfere with American shipping. But the slow mails of the day prevented this news from reaching American prior to June 18, 1812. By that point, Congress had already approved Madison's request for war.
The War of 1812 would have two main phases. From 1812 to 1814, Britain concentrated on its war with France. It devoted little effort to the conflict in North America, but it did send ships to blockade the American coast. The second phase of the war began after the British defeated France in April of 1814. Britain would then turn its full attention toward the United States.
The United States military was weak when war was declared. Democratic-Republicans had greatly reduced the size of the army and navy. When the war began, the navy only had 16 ships. The army was poorly trained and poorly equipped and had fewer than 7000 men. They were also led by inexperienced officers. A young Virginia army officer complained that the older officers were victims of "sloth, ignorance or habits of excessive drinking."
The War of 1812 would have two main phases. From 1812 to 1814, Britain concentrated on its war with France. It devoted little effort to the conflict in North America, but it did send ships to blockade the American coast. The second phase of the war began after the British defeated France in April of 1814. Britain would then turn its full attention toward the United States.
The United States military was weak when war was declared. Democratic-Republicans had greatly reduced the size of the army and navy. When the war began, the navy only had 16 ships. The army was poorly trained and poorly equipped and had fewer than 7000 men. They were also led by inexperienced officers. A young Virginia army officer complained that the older officers were victims of "sloth, ignorance or habits of excessive drinking."
The First Phase
Oliver Hazard Perry led the U.S. Navy to an impressive victory
In spite of its small size, the U.S. Navy rose to the challenge. Its warships were the fastest on the seas. Early in the war, before the British blockaded the coast, ships such as the Constitution and the United States won impressive victories.
The most impressive naval victory took place on Lake Erie. In the winter of 1812-1813, the Americans had begun building a fleet on the shores of Lake Erie. Oliver Hazard Perry, an experienced naval officer, took charge of this infant fleet. In September, 1813, the small British force on the lake set out to attack the American ships. Commodore Perry, who had predicted that "this would be the most important day of my life," sailed out to meet the enemy. Perry's ship, the Lawrence, flew a banner declaring "Don't give up the ship."
For two hours, the Americans and British exchanged fire. Perry's ship was destroyed and all the guns were out of action. He grabbed the ship's banner and jumped to a row boat. Under constant British fire, he a some companions sailed to another ship. In command of the second ship, Perry destroyed two of the enemy's ships and soon forced the British to surrender. Perry sent a message to General William Henry Harrison stating, "We have met the enemy and they are ours."
Building on this momentum, Harrison set out to attack the British. But as he transported his army across Lake Erie to Detroit, he discovered that the British had retreated into Canada. Harrison pursued the British force and defeated them at the Battle of the Thames. By October of 1813, the British threat in the Northwest Territory was eliminated. Also, the great Shawnee chief, Tecumseh, was also killed in this battle.
The most impressive naval victory took place on Lake Erie. In the winter of 1812-1813, the Americans had begun building a fleet on the shores of Lake Erie. Oliver Hazard Perry, an experienced naval officer, took charge of this infant fleet. In September, 1813, the small British force on the lake set out to attack the American ships. Commodore Perry, who had predicted that "this would be the most important day of my life," sailed out to meet the enemy. Perry's ship, the Lawrence, flew a banner declaring "Don't give up the ship."
For two hours, the Americans and British exchanged fire. Perry's ship was destroyed and all the guns were out of action. He grabbed the ship's banner and jumped to a row boat. Under constant British fire, he a some companions sailed to another ship. In command of the second ship, Perry destroyed two of the enemy's ships and soon forced the British to surrender. Perry sent a message to General William Henry Harrison stating, "We have met the enemy and they are ours."
Building on this momentum, Harrison set out to attack the British. But as he transported his army across Lake Erie to Detroit, he discovered that the British had retreated into Canada. Harrison pursued the British force and defeated them at the Battle of the Thames. By October of 1813, the British threat in the Northwest Territory was eliminated. Also, the great Shawnee chief, Tecumseh, was also killed in this battle.
The Second Phase
Frances Scott Key
After defeating Napoleon in 1814, Britain now turned its full attention to the United States. In August of 1814, the British targeted Washington, DC. When they arrived in the city, they set fire to many public building including the White House and the Capitol.
Dolley Madison, the president's wife, stayed behind until the last minute to save several important documents and objects from the White House. "I have a wagon filled with the most valuable and portable objects from the house. I insist on waiting until the large portrait of General Washington is secured," wrote Dolley Madison in a letter to her sister.
After burning the president's mansion and the Capitol, the British fllet moved on to Baltimore to attack Fort McHenry. The commander of the fort ordered a flag "so large that the British will have no difficulty seeing it." Detained on a British ship, was a lawyer named Frances Scott Key. He would witness the battle as it raged through the night and into the following morning. At dawn, Key could still see the large American flag flying over the fort. He expressed his pride in a poem that is now our National Anthem (see below).
Dolley Madison, the president's wife, stayed behind until the last minute to save several important documents and objects from the White House. "I have a wagon filled with the most valuable and portable objects from the house. I insist on waiting until the large portrait of General Washington is secured," wrote Dolley Madison in a letter to her sister.
After burning the president's mansion and the Capitol, the British fllet moved on to Baltimore to attack Fort McHenry. The commander of the fort ordered a flag "so large that the British will have no difficulty seeing it." Detained on a British ship, was a lawyer named Frances Scott Key. He would witness the battle as it raged through the night and into the following morning. At dawn, Key could still see the large American flag flying over the fort. He expressed his pride in a poem that is now our National Anthem (see below).
Andrew Jackson: The Hero of New Orleans
Meanwhile, in the north, the British sent a force from Canada across Lake Champlain. Its goal was to push south and cut off New England. The plan failed when the British fleet on the lake was defeated in September 1814.
In the South, the British moved against the strategic port of New Orleans. In December 1814, dozens of ships carried 7500 British troops toward Louisiana. To fight this force, the Americans patched together an army under the command of General Andrew Jackson.
The British attacked Jackson's forces on January 8, 1815. Protected by earthworks, American riflemen mowed down the advancing enemy. It was a tremendous victory for Jackson and the American forces who suffered just 71 casualties compared to 2000 suffered by the enemy. Though this battle helped build American confidence and morale, and made a national hero of General Jackson, it was totally unnecessary. Once again, slow mails from Europe had delayed news of the Treaty of Ghent from reaching American in time. This treaty ended the War of 1812 and was actually signed two weeks prior to the battle on December 24, 1814.
In the South, the British moved against the strategic port of New Orleans. In December 1814, dozens of ships carried 7500 British troops toward Louisiana. To fight this force, the Americans patched together an army under the command of General Andrew Jackson.
The British attacked Jackson's forces on January 8, 1815. Protected by earthworks, American riflemen mowed down the advancing enemy. It was a tremendous victory for Jackson and the American forces who suffered just 71 casualties compared to 2000 suffered by the enemy. Though this battle helped build American confidence and morale, and made a national hero of General Jackson, it was totally unnecessary. Once again, slow mails from Europe had delayed news of the Treaty of Ghent from reaching American in time. This treaty ended the War of 1812 and was actually signed two weeks prior to the battle on December 24, 1814.
The Legacy of the War
Americans took great pride in the victories won during the War of 1812
The treaty that ended the War of 1812 showed there was really no clear winner. No territory changed hands, and trade disputes were left unresolved. Still, the war had very important consequences. First, it made heroes of men like Oliver Hazard Perry, William Henry Harrison and Andrew Jackson. Harrison and Jackson would go on to become presidents. American patriotism and unity reached levels never before seen. The war also broke the strength of Native Americans who sided with the British. Finally, when the war did interrupt trade, the Americans were forced to make many goods they had previously imported. This encouraged the growth of American manufacturing.
The U.S. had also proved it could defend itself against the world's strongest military force. For the first time, perhaps, Americans believed they could not only survive, but prosper on their own. What followed the war would become known as the "Era of Good Feelings."
The U.S. had also proved it could defend itself against the world's strongest military force. For the first time, perhaps, Americans believed they could not only survive, but prosper on their own. What followed the war would become known as the "Era of Good Feelings."